Theory of Cognitive Development When the Greatest Ideas are Put to Practice

There is no secret that of all complicated mechanisms existing, the one of a human brain must be the most sophisticated one. Even though some major discoveries were made, they were still the tip of the iceberg until Jean Piaget came with his theory of cognitive development.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Cognitive Development: When the Greatest Ideas are Put to Practice specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Explaining in details how the process of learning takes place and splitting it in several key phases, Piaget helped the humankind understand the manner in which the cognitive process takes place. In addition, one of the obvious elements of cognition, which is moral reasoning (Verderber, Sellnow and Verderber 425), is emphasized by Piaget. Taking a closer look at the theory and the way it is implemented in real life, one can possibly understand the logics of Piaget’s arguments and learning the plac e that moral reasoning takes in the given chain or ideas. To start with, it is necessary to mention that the process of cognition, in Piaget’s interpretation, is split into four stages. As McLeod explains, these are the â€Å"sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational† (McLeod para. 8) stages; and, since â€Å"there is always interaction between ourselves and objects† (TESLAPPE), as Piaget himself explained it, the four are completely inseparable. The first one, sensorimotor stage, presupposes that the child identify an object with the help of the five senses, thus, recognizing its basic characteristics. As Piaget himself put it, â€Å"We can see that the child does not draw what he sees. He draws the idea of it. He draws what he knows of it† (TESLAPPE). The above-mentioned can be traced in one of the numerous examples of how a child reacts to a certain irritant. For instance, when a child pays attention to a rattle toy, as it is shown in the video by jenningh, the sensorimotor stage of the cognition process is reached. Even though the child does not seem to be interested in the toy much, as it is shown in the video, he still recognizes it, and it becomes clear that whenever he hears this sound next time, he will be aware of the fact that there is a rattle toy somewhere in the vicinity. Moreover, the baby will have the image of a rattle toy in his mind when hearing the familiar sound, thus, forming an idea about the source of the noise.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The next stage will be the preoperational one. At the given stage, the child is not ready yet to think in a symbolic manner, but offers very basic knowledge about the way a certain phenomenon happens or the way a certain object functions. The given stage can be considered a link between the materialistic perception of a certain thing and abst ract thinking. If considering this process from Piaget’s perspective, one must admit that there is a certain artistic touch to the given stage. As Piaget comments on the given process, â€Å"knowledge is always an assimilation or interpretation† (TESLAPPE); therefore, the given stage allows the child to assimilate the basic knowledge about a certain object or phenomenon and interpret it in a way which the child finds clear and convincing. As the child recognizes the object, the time for a concrete operational stage comes. At this point, the child already has a certain concept about the given object and understands its mechanics. Hence, the stage of abstract thinking is activated. With the help of abstract thinking, the child can deduce a number of ideas from the facts that (s)he has at hand. Creating a train of ideas, a child reaches certain conclusions, thus, learning to think in a logical way. The given stage is demonstrated in the experiment with a girl drawing a tr iangle – a new shape which she is attempting to learn to recognize and depict (TESLAPPE). It is evident that the girl already has certain concepts about other geometry figures, since she starts drawing a square by the force of habit. Even though the girl fails to complete the task, coming up with a square, the given experiment makes it clear that the concept of a square has been cemented into the girl’s mind. Thus, she tries to apply the old concept to the given task, being at the operational stage. Finally, the process ends up with the formal operational part, â€Å"when adolescent begins to think abstractly and to reason hypothetically† (jenningh). At the given stage, a child can think in an abstract manner without any material objects as a support, thus, developing his/her deduction and induction skills. It is important that the reasoning at the formal operational part can be fully hypothetical. Reached at the age of eleven or more, the formal operational par t is the final chapter in the cognitive development process.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Theory of Cognitive Development: When the Greatest Ideas are Put to Practice specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is quite peculiar that in Verderber’s book, the given stages are interpreted as â€Å"preconventional morality† and â€Å"conventional morality,† while the two are subsequently splits into two stages each (Verderber, Sellnow and Verderber). Hence, the four elements of the idea remain in their places, but the shape in which they are offered is changed a bit. A Report on a Piagetian Experiment To demonstrate the concept of the cognition theory and show the way it works when being put into practice, the following experiment was conducted. Three people were picked to answer a certain question. The first participant was a four-year-old boy who referred to himself as â€Å"me† and â€Å" Jim†, the second one was a twelve-year-old girl, and the third one was a nineteen-year-old man. The people mentioned above were offered a single question to answer, namely, â€Å"What if people didn’t have thumbs?† The latter made a joke, â€Å"Then we wouldn’t know how to rate comments on YouTube.† The girl answered, â€Å"I don’t know.† Meanwhile, the boy nearly cried in fear, imagining the consequences. Analyzing the results which have been derived from the â€Å"opinion poll,† one will see that the three participants displayed the reactions which are characteristic of the people who are on a certain stage of the cognition of their bodies. Obviously, the boy is yet at the sensorimotor stage, which means that he does not identify his self and his body yet and is only learning to. Hence, the idea of taking his thumbs away seemed extremely realistic and, therefore, very frightening to him. Meanwhile, the girl displayed in a rath er graphic way that she is at the stage of formal operations in the process of cognizing her body. Since she has obviously learned to identify her body and her own self, the idea of not having a certain part of her body seemed ridiculous to her and, thus, left her speechless. Meanwhile, the nineteen-year-old, who is way past the final stage of learning about his body properties, has these concepts cemented in his mind so hard that he can even make jokes about the idea of not having a thumb. Thus, the three examples make perfect specimens for a corresponding cognition process stage. Works Cited jenningh. â€Å"Formal Operational Child.† YouTube. 11 Jun. 2007. Web.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More jenningh. â€Å"Object Performance.† YouTube. 10 Jan. 2007. Web. McLeod, Saul. â€Å"Jean Piaget.† Simply Psychology. 2009. Web. TESLAPPE. Piaget on Piaget, Part 1. YouTube. 4 Oct. 2010. Web. Verderber, Rudolf F., Deanna D. Sellnow and Kathleen S. Verderber. â€Å"Moral Reasoning: Cognitive Developmental Theory.† The Challenge of Effective Speaking. Ed. Rudolf F. Verderber, Deanna D. Sellnow and Kathleen S. Verderber. Stamford, CN: Cengage Learning. 2011. 425-428. Vance-Granville Community College Library. Web. This essay on Theory of Cognitive Development: When the Greatest Ideas are Put to Practice was written and submitted by user Carissa E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

He had restored to Germany her self-respect

He had restored to Germany her self-respect, and recreated orderliness out of the chaos and distress that had followed her defeat in 1918. Sir Neville Henderson, Failure of a Mission, 1940.There is no doubt, that if the Third Reich had ended in 1939, then Adolf Hitler would have been viewed as one of the greatest economic leaders ever to come to power. Hitler succeeded in minimising unemployment, creating mass labour projects that benefited Germany, restoring German agriculture, working with Big Business, and overall, restoring the strong economy that had previously belonged to Germany; one that had been seriously affected after the Versailles Peace Treaty and the Great Depression. This economic recovery could only come about as a result of the totalitarian regime led by Hitler.Hitler came into power in 1932; inheriting an economy that had been ravaged by the effects of World War 1 and the subsequent peace treaty at Versailles. After Versailles, Germany suffered mass unemployment, ha d to de-militarise and was left bearing the load of the First World War. Unemployment in 1932 had reached record highs for that region- 5 575 000. Germanys Gross National Product at that same time was also at a low of 38 billion Reichsmarks (Hindsley et al: 255). By 1938, unemployment had been reduced to 429 000, and by 1939 a labour shortage had arisen. As well as this the GNP had been increased to 130 billion Reichsmarks (all figures quoted from Hindlsey et al: 255; and Mason: 150). This dramatic shift in figures can be directly attributed to Hitler: his organisational skills and his marvellous ability to unify the German people through his party-orchestrated propaganda and fiery speeches inciting German nationalism. The main economic focus of the Nazi party was unemployment. The numbers of unemployed in Germany fell due to a variety of reasons.One of these reasons being the number of women in the workforce decreased conside...

Animals Like Us Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Animals Like Us - Essay Example To individuals these, animals are for human beneficence, in terms of clothing, companionship, food, sport, work, and research. Some people also consider the fact that using animals in such a manner may cause pain to the animals. The feelings result to a thought of the morals of keeping animals as pets. Some consider the relevance of existing animal rights and refute the idea of animals’ entitlement to basic rights. It implies that the concern of ethics when handling animals is a controversial debate between proponents and critics of proper animal care. The essay explores the moral concerns of keeping pets and the care of other animals. Further, it recommends the best approaches to dealing with animals. For a deep understanding of the ethical concerns of keeping animals, there is a consideration of the uses of such animals. One of the main uses of animals is medical research, which gives findings for solving human problems such as disease and death. Some researchers use parts of the animal bodies such as the brain, which causes them distress. For instance, in a certain experiment, a scientist required identifying a certain lesion in the brain tissue of a cat. The procedures of such an operation is a grisly one because in entirely kills the cat. The researchers use a pair of pliers to detach the skulls from the bodies and then break it extract the desired part of the brain (Herzog 246). Before the process materializes, the animal undergoes a series of painful experiences such as injections with formalin and other drugs. If people were to consider the ethics of dealing with the animals, they could discover that such a process is painful. The foremost ethical concern in the case relat ed to the question of whether humans share in the pain of animals or not. Most individuals feel that treating animals in an oppressive manner is unethical and inhumane. The researchers in the same

Business Process Outsourcing Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Process Outsourcing - Research Proposal Example Therefore, it will be our endeavour to figure out; Therefore, using reliable secondary sources of data would certainly yield the information related to certain cases which have been highlighted in the mainstream media. Haley (2003) contends that a number of researchers have opted to conduct secondary research instead of primary research, primarily because of the cost of conducting such a research and limited opportunities for conducting primary research. Some reliable secondary sources for this research would be the document from NASSCOM, one of India's premier institution representing the software and IT industry; Data available from reputed international organisation like WTO and ILO. Newspaper reports like; Will also prove handy to understand what's going on inside the glittering ITES buildings. In order to assess the opinion of all major stakeholders in the outsourcing industry, we can plan out interviews/ questionnaire surveys with; iii. Some ITES workers. It must be emphasised here that these workers are discouraged from shelling out information to outsiders. But, it needs bit of convincing and an undertaking on the part of the researcher to the effect that, this research is being carried out primarily for academic purpose, and it won't be used for any other purpose. iv. Some union leaders from India like those from UNITES, and some international union leaders like those from UNI Global union. This will help us in knowing both sides of the story. v. Seeking the opinion of someone from the medical profession will also help in correlating the physiological and psychological disorders. Information thus collected will help us in making the comparisons and further investigating the trend. In order to determine the possible implications and significance of the US/UK shifts in the outsourcing industry in India, an interview questionnaire shall be prepared which will seek answers from the respondents accordingly. Part A of the questionnaire will contain the demographic characteristics of the respondents which will serve as the profile of the respondents. This will include their gender, age, employment, and affiliations profile. Part B will determine the behaviour and attitudes of the respondents as to how they perceive the working in graveyard shifts Part C will assess and identify the possible impl

Wildlife and Forest Management in Kanbula National Park Term Paper

Wildlife and Forest Management in Kanbula National Park - Term Paper Example Wildlife and forest management is essential to preserve its natural beauty and to maintain the ecological processes within. However, there are many factors that affect the wildlife and the forest as industrialization is boosting in the realms of China’s borders. Despite the fact that the Liajiaxia Hydroelectric Power Station is producing clean energy, it ironically has caused several alterations to the ecological system of the Kanbula Forest. This paper aims to 1) provide an exposition about the characteristics of the Kanbula National Park; 2) determine the impact of Lijiaxia Hydro Power Plant to the ecological process within Kanbula National Park and; 3) propose several ways of wildlife and forest management while taking into consideration the present condition of the Kanbula National Park. Introduction Forest ecosystem consists primarily of trees and other naturally growing plants. It nurtures various types of wild animals and other species. The forest ecosystem, like the Ka nbula Forest, provides people with food, fuel, timber and fiber. Other than these, most people do not recognize the significance of forests among their lives. Forests provide protection of the hydrologic cycle. They also help in climate regulation because forests are basically natural sinks of carbon, which is one of the greenhouse gases that harm the planet (Espaldon et al, 2004). Kanbula forest is one of the most diverse across China. However, most of its flora and fauna are at risk of extinction. Major causes of forest destruction include industrialization, commercialism and weak enforcement of forest laws (Sajise et al, 1996). This paper will dig deeper into several issues that Kanbula National Park is facing, and how these issues or factors impact the forest’s ecological system. Characteristics of Kanbula National Park Geographical Position The Kanbula National Park is located in Northwest of Jianza County of Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous States in Qinghai Province, with t otal area of 15,054 hectares and altitude of 2,100 to 4,000 meters above sea level (Hong, Shi, 2009). The Kanbula forest is basically a subalpine forest as it is located in high altitude. The forest is also located in the transition zone from Loess Plateau to Qinghai Tibet Plateau. Thus, it is the warmest region in Qinghai Province. It borders on the Yellow River in the North and is adjacent to the Liajiaxia Hydroelectric Power Station. Huge mountains extend from the forest with trees covered resembling a sea of forest. There are deflated hills around the Kanbula Forest that are formed due to erosion from wind and sand. The hills are called red cloud landforms. Climate Characteristics Cold and warm weathers are the two general climate condition in the forest. Cold season is characterized by cold, windy and dry air, while dry season features monsoon and warm and humid air. According to meteorological data records, the average temperature of the forest is 1 to 2.9 °C (Wu, 2007). The warmest month (July) has a daily temperature of 11.5-13.4 °C. The coldest month (January) has average daily temperature -12-10.1 °C(Wu, 2007). From March to September month average is temperature of 7-8.4  °C; stable over time through 0 °C for 190 days; plant growing period mean diurnal temperature 13.l  °C, 2,622-2,900 hours of annual sunshine hours, global solar radiation 609-647 kJ / cm. Annual rainfall is 450-490 mm, annual evaporation 1,923 mm. Annual average wind speed 19 meters per second, more concentrated in the January to April (Wu, 2007). Soil Characteristics Kanbula forest’s soil has five categories. The first type is alpine shrub meadow soil that is found at the altitude between 3,600 and 3,900 meters. The second type is the

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War?

Is Cyber Warfare the Future of War? Introduction Undoubtedly, the twentieth century could be counted as the bloodiest in human history; man has been at war for much longer than he has been at peace. The death tolls are incalculable although historians put estimates at somewhere between 170 million to 210 million. No true figures are available but what is undisputed is the proliferation and effect of war on all aspects of society. Its impact on the soldier and the civilian as well as the economy and society or culture has given birth to the concept of ‘total war’  (Marwil, 2000). The last time total war was experienced was the Second World War which invariably led to the Cold War and its all-encompassing nature on every aspect of society  (Stavrianakis & Selby, 2012). Particularly with technology, the 20th century has seen the advancement of technology to epistemic levels where it has produced the concept of ‘modern war’ – atomic weapons, satellite guided missiles, chemical and biological weapons and electronic drones; none of which have eclipsed the older forms of warfare  (Barkawi, 2011). A new form of warfare has evolved and it is part of the 4th Industrial Revolution; it is cyber warfare. To understand its significance, one only has to look at former President Barack Obama declaring the digital infrastructure of the US as strategic national asset to be protected with the entire resources available to the United States. Obama prompted the formation of a special unit in the Pentagon called Cybercom whose sole purpose is to prepare the US for the inevitable cyber war that America will be embroiled in. The UK has also set up the National Cyber Security Programme and NATO has released the Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare; a three-year study by international scholars setting out ninety-rules to govern conflicts among nations. Cyber warfare is definitely gearing up as a new arena for conflict. This dissertation looks at the subject of cyber warfare and examines how widespread a concern this is to nations and if indeed it is just a concern of the super powers. Just like atomic weapons has become a military weapon of magnitude, the world has still not experienced a nuclear war. Instead nuclear energy is being used to advance economies and aid production and meet energy needs. Is cyber space similar to the threat of nuclear weapons? Does it actually do more good that the proposed harm that is being touted? This dissertation will carry out a secondary data analysis to understand the current literature on the subject and determine if indeed cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Narrative The organising principle of every theme in this dissertation is layered; each begins with a general historical and contextual appraisal invariably moving to specifics and constantly looking at the problem-solution dilemma. To substantiate or clarify explanations, arguments, themes, findings etc., footnotes will be included and/or non-integral citations will be used to focus attention more on the research being discussed and less on the researchers or authors. All related studies to this dissertation will be research/information prominent. With a few exceptions, English is used entirely in this dissertation and therefore tense usage is important in the organisational narrative. Where reference is made to a single study, the past simple tense will be used. Where reference is made to more than one study or an area of research, the present perfect tense will be used. Where reference is made to generally accepted knowledge, particularly with respect to cyber warfare or generally accepted knowledge in international relations, information technology or geopolitics, the present tense will be used. Finally, the choice of reporting verbs in this dissertation will inadvertently express a certain attitude be it critical distance, doubt, certainty, confusion etc. As much as possible, I have tried to maintain the same reporting verbs used in citing research and evoking emotion in my reflexive thoughts. Sometimes this has not been possible and the same reporting verb will express different attitudes depending on the context. Where this has occurred, I have elaborated any misconception or misunderstanding in the corresponding footnotes. Themes and concepts The chronological order of the table of contents gives a straightforward description of the chapter and sub-chapter headings in this dissertation. Thematically, the dissertation is divided into 4 chapters. Chapters 1-3 deal with the research justification as well as academic and methodological underpinnings. These chapters set the terms of reference for the dissertation and elaborate its research direction and deal with the subject matter, cyber warfare. Chapter 4 deals with the results, discussion of the results and conclusion. Theoretical and conceptual framework War, Conflict and Anarchy It is imperative to understand international relations and the theories and concepts underpinning them before looking at cyber warfare as a new arena for war. The Melian Dialogue in the great 5th century BC classic of Thucydides’ â€Å"History of the Peloponnesian War† best describes the context in which one looks at the international system. At a point in the Peloponnesian Wars, the Athenians wanted to take over the neutral island of Melos to obtain control over the Aegean Sea. An Athenian fleet was dispatched to Melos to try and negotiate a surrender and the ensued dialogue, as told by Thucydides, captures the essence and birth of our international system today. The Athenians declared to the Melians that â€Å"since you know as well as we do that right, as the world goes, is only in question between equals in power, while the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must.† (Thucydides) The international system today is premised on the fact that nation states can and do exert their power over weaker states although some do work through a collaborative system to ensure a common purpose. The study of international relations begins with the very notion that there is no central authority which acts as the ultimate arbiter in world affairs. Nations simply do what they can through mutually beneficial alliances and discard them when their interests are no longer served. If we look at world history before the 20th century, international relations could be said to be in a state of anarchy as there was no central figure. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Despite China being a hyperpower for 800 years, there is no record of any central authority governing the behaviour of nation-states. They simply did what they could to nations who couldn’t fight back. Ironically China was insular and did not engage in any international conflicts. Every study of international relations or politics beyond that makes assumptions about the state of anarchy and offers a counter explanation of an international system with inter-state relations and a hierarchical intrastate system. A system that we have now with bodies like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization regulating economic relations and the International Criminal Court prosecuting crimes against humanity.   International relations deals with how nation states decide to exist without a central authority or with no structure or how they choose to create one. Waltz (1979) describes the juxtaposition of the international system and the domestic system by explaining that   domestic systems are centralized and hierarchic†, international systems are decentralized and anarchic†Waltz 1979, p. 88 All approaches to international relations and studying the behaviour of nation-states begins with an assessment of the anarchic structure in the international system. Anarchy is the starting point of viewing international relations but that view depends on the perspective a country chooses to take. Let’s begin with the oldest view recorded since the Melian dialogue between the Athenians and the Melians. The ‘political realist’ perspective is known as a theory one subscribes to in international relations. A political realist is under no illusions that countries behave with the single purpose of self-interest and therefore actions and reactions are done to defend that interest. Nation states are geared towards survival, according to the realist and this can often mean exerting strength over a weaker enemy or acceding to a collaboration with a stronger foe. All is done for the purpose of ensuring the continuation of the state by any means necessary. Therefore, the only way to predict behaviour is to predict survival. Realists do not see a set of behavioural guidelines but a survival of the fittest in the ‘international jungle of world politics’. Or as one might put it succinctly, ‘might is right’. To the realist, the international order is that of ensuring that power relations are conducted in such a manner that outcomes are mutually exclusive. One party will always gain over the other so the purpose for the nation-state in any negotiations is to be the winner. Where this cannot be achieved then the realist will view this as a precarious position to be in. Realists’ view of the anarchical order can describe the behaviour of nation-states in various ways from the classical realist to the neorealist and several forms in between. Whichever view is subscribed to, anarchy forms the basis of that world view and the expected behaviour of nation-states  (Heginbotham, 2015). Liberalist recognise the importance of anarchy in the international system in just the same way as the realists. Both liberal and realist accept the absence of a supreme authority directing the affair of nation-states. Where liberals and the liberal view differ on the subject is what can be done within the anarchic system. Liberals believe that nation-states and state actors can actually come together to build rules, guideline, set up institutions and appoint various monitoring bodies to govern or at least modify the behaviour of nation-states so that they can work together for a common person  (Barkawi, 2011). Outcomes do not have to be mutually exclusive but can be mutually beneficial in an anarchic system, according to the liberal view of international relations. Through joint cooperation, liberals believe that the behaviour of nation-states can be changed to achieve a level of power where states feel secure about their relationships with other states and do not seek to consolidate power at the expense of others. This classical liberal view can be seen in the world today as neoliberalism. Liberals still see anarchy in the international system but see it as something that can be overcome through a concerted effort. Whatever view one prescribes, the prevailing wisdom is that nation states will shift between theories and concepts to advance their own agenda and not confine themselves to an enduring guiding principle. The concept of cyber warfare, I would argue, follows suit. Defining the cyber world Almost twenty-five years ago, ‘cyberspace’ as we know it did not exist beyond the primitive computers placed in research laboratories and academic institutions. In fact, cyberspace was merely a theoretical concept that was considered unachievable. Today that has drastically changed. Our world would be unfathomable without cyberspace. To put its vastness into perspectives, approximately 4 billion people are online with roughly 50 billion devices ranging from super computers to desktops to laptops to smartphones to tablets. On a yearly basis, 90 trillion emails are sent and two trillion transactions are conducted in cyberspace (Turns, 2012). Cyberspace permeates are lives so much that we use it for everything from international trade, to logistics, communications, record keeping, financial transactions to sending flowers! All these positive contributions are the benevolent side of cyberspace. The malevolent aspect of cyberspace is ignored by the public unless a scare or scandal brings it to the surface. Figures estimate that on a daily basis, around 55,000 pieces of malware are found, 200,000 computers are ‘hijacked’[1]as well as the countless number of frauds that go unreported. How exactly does one define cyberspace? That question is not easy to answer as there are as many answers as there are experts in the field. A notable expert worth considering is Daniel Kuehl who collected a series of definitions from various sources and analysed his findings  (Curran, et al., 2008). He concluded that cyberspace consisted of a few dimensions namely; An operational space – it is an operational space where proponents of the domain ply their trade and perfect their skills. An electronic domain – it is an electronic network comprising of computers and a vast network of electromagnetic activityInformation domain – it is a network of information that is not limited to a particular location, time and space Kuehl analysed all these aspects and offered his own definition which will be used in this dissertation: â€Å"A global domain within the information environment whose distinctive and unique character is framed by the use of electronics and the electromagnetic spectrum to create, store, modify, exchange and exploit information via interdependent and interconnected networks using information-communication technologies.†Kuehl, 2009 Cyber terrorism is a portmanteau of the words cyberspace and terrorism and was first recognised and used in 1996 but became popular after a 1998 report from the Center for Strategic and International Studies titled Cybercrime, Cyberterrorism, Cyberwarfare: Averting an Electronic Waterloo. The report discussed the possibilities of an electronic attack, likely outcomes and expected methods  (Carr, 2011). Three terms are often confused when discussing Cyber terrorism so it is crucial that they are defined here. Cyber terrorism: â€Å"It is premeditated, politically motivated attacks by sub national groups or clandestine agents, or individuals against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in violence against non-combatant targets (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Information warfare: â€Å"It is a planned attack by nations or their agents against information and computer systems, computer programs, and data that result in enemy losses (Colarik & Janczewski, 2012).† Cyber crime: â€Å"Cyber crime is a crime committed through the use of information technology (Colarik & Janczewski, 2008).† This is more of the documented cyber related terms because it has received adequate coverage due to its proliferation in domestic law enforcement. In the U.S., the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act defines Internet criminal acts (Jensen, 2009). Furthermore, the â€Å"European Union members of the NATO alliance have domestic laws implementing the 1995 E.U. Data Privacy Directive† (Knapp & Boulton, 2006). For argument’s sake, cybercrime includes offences such as; the impairment of data, misuse of devices, interception of data offenses. traditional criminal offenses facilitated through the use of the internet, e.g. fraud, copyright infringement, child pornography Cybercrime has received a lot of international attention and was formally discussed at the Council of Europes 2001 Convention on Cybercrime  (Robinson, et al., 2015). This convention is still the only international understanding in place that exclusively focusses on cybercrimes. Terrorism: â€Å"The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a person or an organized group against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments, often for ideological or political reasons (Dragan, et al., 2012).† Research Approach Research Questions This research will attempt to explore and answer three questions regarding the broad themes that preliminary research has shown and in line with the gaps in current academic research; What exactly is cyber space?Is an information war a ‘war’ in the conventional sense?Is Russia engaging in a cyber war with the West? The dissertation considered various approaches to address the questions above as well as examine different options such as sources of data, type of research framework, timescale and methodology. In trying to answer any of the research questions, it was clear that any primary data used to carry out the research and with the available time limit would not be possible or indeed produce valuable information. This dissertation needed to design an analytical framework to counter this problem. Thus, I attempt to make a justification for carrying out secondary analysis of qualitative data and the benefits and limitations of the approach Secondary Data Collection In setting about the data collection, it was imperative I included boundaries for the study, the protocol for recording the data as well as the methodology for analysing it which are all set out below. The secondary data included qualitative documents and qualitative audio and visual materials. The list of secondary evidences kept evolving and the research continued. However, below is the final list of secondary evidences used. Data from various government departmentsNews articles from newspapersData and analysis from periodicals, books, journals etc.Data from non-governmental agencies and public bodiesData from online sources Secondary Analysis of Qualitative Data Secondary data analysis is essentially re-analysis of data collected by another researcher (Elliot, 2015). Andrews et al gave a definition of secondary data analysis as the collection and use of previously collected data for another purpose  (Andrews, et al., 2012). In addition, they also explained that the use of secondary data analysis first appeared when one of the founders of Grounded Theory (Glaser) discussed the possibility of re-analysing data that had already been collected for other purposes (Andrews, et al., 2012). Notwithstanding, secondary analysis is still not very popular and there have been very limited reviews of its use (Hinds, et al., 1997). At this point, it is pertinent that a distinction be made between secondary analysis, documentary analysis, systemic reviews and meta-analysis. Secondary data analysis is the examination of primary data[2] from previous research studies. Such data would include examples such as semi-structured interviews, research diaries, responses to open-ended questions in questionnaires, transcripts of interviews/conversations etc. On the other hand, documentary analysis would involve the analysis of data such as auto-biographies, personal diaries, photographs etc. Heaton does point out that there could be some considerable overlap between secondary analysis and documentary analysis (Heaton, 2008). Meta-analysis and Systematic Reviews both involve both involve going over published findings of previous research studies unlike secondary data analysis that looks at the primary data and not just the published findings. Review & Discussion Introduction Cyber warfare has different definitions depending on which theorist is applying it and which country is examining and applying the concept; for example, the U.S. military view cyber warfare in very different terms from the Russians. To begin with the word â€Å"cyber† is a completely new phenomenon that arose after the dot com boom and the start of the 4th Revolution. Not surprisingly, it has not filtered into the established rules of war or armed conflict adhered to by other nation states  (Chen, 2010). For starters, the word â€Å"cyber† is not found in the 1949 Geneva Conventions and any of the additional Protocols (it has not been inserted there). The word, in common usage, relates to a whole host of things ranging from computers and their networks to the information in these computers to even the process of uploading and retrieving this information. By extension, the word cyber warfare will include acts committed in furtherance of any act against and adversary using everything that is considered part of the ‘cyber’ domain. In looking at acts, cyber warfare would include offensive acts, defensive acts or acts of deterrence. By this explanation, it will include disseminating offensive information through computers or computer networks  (Andress & Winterfeld, 2011). Cyber warfare is one that has no clear boundaries or actors which makes a lot of the current legislation unhelpful. Acts of war or states of war are usually assigned to recognised states and combatants. But in this case, cyber warfare can be conducted by states, agents of states, non-state actors, international groups or any collection of people with a single vested interest or even one individual  (Cornish, et al., 2010).   Cyber Warfare and the legal question This dissertation started off with trying to determine if cyber warfare is the new arena of conflict. Even though I have attempted to define ‘cyber’ and ‘cyber warfare’, there are still large parts of this area of study that need to be examined. A lot of the current research already makes the assumption that cyber warfare is warfare because of its obvious name or that a few of the permanent members of the UN Security Council are making the case. But what is the legal argument to justify treating cyber warfare as warfare? Let’s begin with the least disputed agreement and definition of what leads to armed conflict. It is generally accepted that â€Å"armed force† is the necessary requirement for â€Å"armed conflict†. The UN Charter Article 2(4) provides, All members [of the UN] shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State . . .,. Exceptions are use of force authorized by the Security Council, and self-defence pursuant to Article 5 1.† Even customary law that applies to non-UN members still has the expectation of the same necessary requirement although it must be pointed out that this is only applicable to state actors (Kelsey, 2008). Non-state actors where not envisioned when the Charter was framed. Nonetheless, this is still the legal argument as it stands. Cyber warfare does not seem to meet the threshold of ‘armed force’ although many would argue otherwise. And it is this argument that is usually translated into the foreign policy of some states  (Gompert & Libicki, 2014). Even the UN Charter Article 51 still proposes that a response to attack is only justified if the initial or first attack is an armed attack. As it stands today, cyber warfare is not recognised as a legitimate war just in the same way that the ‘War on Terror’ is not a legitimate war but a cornerstone of US foreign policy. By extension, it stands to reason that a cyber attack is not in reality an attack recognised by the UN (Droege., 2012). Ultimately the view of whether an act is a cyber attack or part of cyber warfare is merely one that is only determined by the recipient of the act and how they choose to respond; through dialogue or retaliation? In addition, the judgement of the international community plays a significant part even though state actors often form alliances that ensures that an attack on one nation state could be an attack on the entire alliance; e.g. a cyber attack on a NATO member state. Not having a legal basis for an action does not in any way imply that it is not treated as a conflict or war. We only have to look at the U.S. justifications for bombing, Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria in clear violation of the U.N. Charter; none of these states had perpetrated an armed attack against the U.S. The international community enjoined the U.S. even though other states had pointed out at the clear hypocrisy being committed by the U.S. If one is to consider cyber warfare and cyber attacks, then answering the legal question is insufficient. One must refer to the prevailing theory of international relations one subscribes to or comment on wider matters governing a state’s behaviour. This dissertation will look at empirical examples of cyber warfare. Global Cyber warfare: China vs US In todays information age, the Peoples Republic of China has replaced and even improved upon KGB methods of industrial espionage to the point that the Peoples Republic of China now presents one of the most capable threats to U.S. technology leadership and by extension its national security.Dan Verton, Cyber Warfare Expert (Hjortdal, 2011) It is easy to forget that in 1820, Greece had revolted against the Ottoman Empire, Britain had opened the first modern railway and was on its way to an exploding industrial revolution, Brazil had nervously declared independence from Portugal and that China was the world’s superpower with the largest share of global GDP. In fact, it is easy to forget because history has been written specifically to gloss over these facts. Western academia has repeatedly highlighted China as a collective of starved, dispossessed and slaughtered people and not a prosperous, dynamic and global power from 1100 – 1820. From 1078, China was the world’s major producer of steel, the world’s leader in technical innovations, the world’s leading trading nation, possessed the largest commercial ships and these are just to mention a few. Few academics would now dispute that China was the world’s hyperpower for 800 years before the rise of British imperialism in the 19th century. Western imperialism and China’s decline has been documented in detail which this book cannot do justice to. The rise of Chinese economic and political strength is unquestionably due to the Communist Party of China which began when the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of China adopted a reform policy triggering the private sector[3].   Since 1978, entrepreneurship has driven the Chinese economy and the economic and political changes since then remain unprecedented. So transformative has this change been that China is now a threat to the US in the information superhighway. A recent event in 2016 puts this threat into context. China builds world’s fastest supercomputer without U.S. chips â€Å"China on Monday revealed its latest supercomputer, a monolithic system with 10.65 million compute cores built entirely with Chinese microprocessors. This follows a U.S. government decision last year to deny China access to Intels fastest microprocessors. There is no U.S.-made system that comes close to the performance of Chinas new system, the Sunway TaihuLight. Its theoretical peak performance is 124.5 petaflops, according to the latest biannual release today of the worlds Top500 supercomputers. It is the first system to exceed 100 petaflops. A petaflop equals one thousand trillion (one quadrillion) sustained floating-point operations per second.†ComputerWorld (June 20, 2016 http://www.computerworld.com/article/3085483/high-performance-computing/china-builds-world-s-fastest-supercomputer-without-u-s-chips.html) It has earlier been argued that cyberspace is open to both state actors and non-state actors. Because actions can be taken by an individual in a state, it is extremely hard to prove culpability of the state. In other words, a cyber attack from a computer in China in no way implies that the cyber attack was orchestrated by the Chinese state. Proving culpability is extremely hard and this fact alone hinders the argument that cyber warfare could be a new arena of conflict. Having said this, the media is awash with stories of Chinese cyber attacks on the U.S. but it is always lacking in evidence. Ironically, one never hears of U.S. cyber attacks on China or at the very least the mainstream media never reports it. Despite China’s repeated denials of culpability and its demand for proof that its citizens are responsible for cyber attacks on U.S. interests, the U.S. have taken the bold step in 2011 to issue a statement from the National Counterintelligence Executive that China is the â€Å"most active and persistent perpetrator of cyber intrusions into the United States† (Heginbotham, 2015).    As there are no clearly defined rules on cyber warfare, any escalation of tensions between China and the U.S. could be construed and framed in the words of a potential conflict similar to the rhetoric that started and fuelled the Cold War between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. This Cold War metaphor is how commentators are viewing the Cyber race between China and the U.S. According to President Barack Obama’s 2011 Cyberspace Policy Review, â€Å"cybersecurity risks pose some of the most serious economic and national security challenges of the 21st century† (Solis, 2014). This rhetoric is backed up by the steps the U.S. has taken to secure its strategic advantage in the domain. In 2009, the U.S. created the Cyber Command under the National Security Agency (NSA) with the express purpose of putting cyber warfare in the forefront of its military and defensive strategy. In addition, the Department of Defence (DoD) also has the Pentagon Strategy for Operating in Cyberspace with China clearly set in its sights. These aggressive overtures by the U.S. have not been ignored. According to the Chinese Ministry of Public Security, they are of the opinion that cyber attacks on Chinese computer installations grow at a rate of 80% annually making China the largest and most venerable recipient of cyber attacks   (Robinson, et al., 2015). To put it into context, in 2011, China succumbed to a cyber attack where 100 million usernames, passwords and emails were leaked unto the internet. What is commonly acknowledge is that the U.S. practically controls the entire internet and other states are using every means possible to reduce the influence of that control and threat even though the US was instrumental in the development of the internet. For the global internet to be fully operational, it requires 13 root serves. 10 of the 13 are based in the US and the other 3 are based in Japan, Sweden and the Netherlands. ICANN, the body that authorises domain names and designations is based in the U.S. With these facts in mind, the U.S. has the most potential to turn cyber space into a cyber threat. At least that is the argument posed by China and they insist on being able to protect their national interests. With both sides staking a national interest priority, it is not surprising that cyber warfare could be the next arena between the U.S. and China (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). Global Cyber warfare: Russia vs the rest of the world The Russians view cyber and cyberspace in completely contradictory terms to the U.S. and the West in general. First and foremost, the Russians do not generally refer to the term cyber as a distinct concept in the way political theorists in the West do. Russia, and to some extent China, have a wider understanding of information and its control regardless of the medium chosen. So, given its long history with controlling information about and through the state during the era of the Soviet Union, electronic information is just one conduit or category of information that can be utilized, manipulated and harnessed for the greater good of the state. That is to say that the notion of cyber is just another mechanism by which information is relayed and does not take priority over other mechanisms in importance just in practical relevance. In Russian military doctrine, information and disinformation go hand in hand and are tools used by the state apparatus to achieve a desired objective for its citizens or against its adversaries. It is utilized with judicious foresight towards a purpose in addition to other traditional methods and processes. In practical terms, if information (or disinformation) helps another weapon to tool, then Russian military theorists see electronic information merely as an enabler or facilitator. Therefore information is relevant to already established practices of the state such as disinformation operations, electronic warfare, Psychology Operations (also known as PsyOps), political subversion and subterfuge, economic warfare etc. According to (Carr, 2011), â€Å"this is stated clearly in the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2010) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. features of modern military conflicts is the prior implementation of measures of information warfare in order to achieve political objectives without the utilization of military force and, subsequently, in the interest of shaping a favourable response from the world community to the utilization of military force.†Carr, 2011 Cyber warfare, according to Russian theorists, is just information warfare by another means but more efficient than other types of information warfare. Cyber warfare is a legitimate tool of the state, so the argument goes, in peacetime and in conflict. It does not hold a special prominence like it does in the U.S. Cyber warfare is regulated to accompanying other tools of the state but given its nature, it has no set rules, no boundaries, no prescribed limits and no real restrictions or applications. Such a view is diametrically opposite to that of the concept of cyberspace held in the West. In support of this theory, the Russian state apparatus is structured quite differently from the U.S. Cyberspace and cyber warfare started under the remit of the Federal Security Service (Federal’naya Sluzhba Bezopastnosti: FSB) which was tasked with initiating information and disinformation wars using whatever means necessary including cyber warfare. The FSB also maintains and controls SORM, the State’s internal cyber surveillance system. In addition to the FSB, The Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Telecommunications, Information Technologies and Mass Communications (Roskomnadzor), is also tasked with controlling the civilian media, telecommunications, the internet, the radio and any electronic media. Russia’s strategy of seeing cyber warfare as a continuation of normal political and military overtures was witnessed in the war with Georgia in 2008  (Robinson, et al., 2015). To date, Russia is still the only country to use all three of military, economic and cyber warfare on an adversary in the international arena. Russia had a two-pronged attack when it used military weapons and cyber warfare to defeat Georgia. Similarly, in its conflict with Ukraine in 2014, its conventional use of military weapons and cyber warfare resulted in Ukrainian government websites being shut down, massive ‘denial of service’ attacks being reported and energy installations being hacked into. This is the first of many of these sorts of ‘total warfare’ that will continue in the new future. One only has to read newspaper reports of cyber attacks occurring on a daily basis. But does this constitute a new arena of conflict? I think given what is already going on in conflicts around the world, the question has already been answered. Whether by design or accident, states are using cyber warfare as a tool against their adversary  (Lieberthal & Singer, 2012). World’s first Cyber War No other body of research could be more persuasive that presenting details of the world’s first cyber war to support the argument that cyber warfare is now a new arena of conflict. The first known incident of an entire country being subjected to an all out cyber war was Estonia. To understand the gravity of this event is to look at the history of Estonia.   Estonia was controlled by the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years and obtained its independence in 1991. Then it was a desolate country which has been starved of infrastructure and economic development. With a population of just under 2 million, it has carved a future for itself as one of the most wired and technological advanced countries in the world. It is truly a model of a smart country with widespread ecommerce and e-government services almost unparalleled anywhere in the world. As a state once controlled by the Soviets until 1991, the country is punctuated with Soviet history and struggle. The capital city, Tallinn, had monuments erected to the Soviet soldiers who fought and died in the struggle to keep Germany out of Russia. Estonia, as it is their right, decided to move the monument to a cemetery which met angry objections from Russian leaders and the large Russian community that grew out of a 50 year occupation. Russia saw Estonia as a symbol of struggle and the Estonians saw Russia as a symbol of oppression. After altercations in the city centre following the removal of the monument, Estonia found that its entire electronic infrastructure was disrupted. The state administration was paralysed, banks and companies had to freeze their operations, the internet was practically down and nothing was working. Culpability was had to prove but it was the first recorded total cyber war against a state. Again, there is no proof that the perpetrators were state spon sored or indeed it was a malicious attack but the timing and the magnitude points to more than a criminal cohort (there was no financial advantage gained in the event) and to a state sponsored cyber attack. More importantly, Estonians pointed the finger at Russia and being members of NATO, they retained the prerogative to invoke Article 5 of NATO: an attack against one is an attack against all. Postscript If there was any uncertainty about cyber warfare becoming the new arena of conflict then the headlines below might seem ominous as they are similar to the headlines that preceded the First World War and the Second World War. And these were in just over 3 days. â€Å"Malta accuses Russia of cyber-attacks in run-up to election The embattled Maltese government has claimed that it has come under attack from a Russian-backed campaign to undermine it, amid worsening relations with the Kremlin. Malta assumed the presidency of Europe’s Council of Ministers in January, an important position under which it chairs high-level meetings in Brussels and sets Europe’s political agenda. Since then, the Maltese government’s IT systems have seen a rise in attacks, according to a source working within its information technology agency, a government body. He claimed the attacks, which have increased ahead of next month’s general election, are designed to damage the government. â€Å"In the last two quarters of last year and the first part of this year, attacks on our servers have increased,† the source said.†Ã‚  (Doward, 2017) â€Å"Trump executive order aims to protect US from ‘catastrophic’ cyber attack US President Donald Trump this month signed an executive order that aims to increase protection for US essential services in case of a cyber attack that results in catastrophic regional or national effects on public health or safety, economic security, or national security†. (Kuchler, 2017) Nth Korea launches cyber attacks on US North Koreas main spy agency has a special cell called Unit 180 that is likely to have launched some of its most daring and successful cyber attacks, according to defectors, officials and internet security experts. North Korea has been blamed in recent years for a series of online attacks, mostly on financial networks, in the United States, South Korea and over a dozen other countries. Cyber security researchers have also said they have found technical evidence that could link North Korea with the global WannaCry ransomware cyber attack that infected more than 300,000 computers in 150 countries this month.   Pyongyang has called the allegation ridiculous. (Reuters, 2017) The research question of whether cyber warfare is a new arena of conflict is probably not in any doubt. The argument reverts back to the beginning of this research when examined the realist approach to international relations. Even if one were to look at the vast number of institutions in the international system and make a please for calmer heads prevailing, the realpolitik of current geopolitics shows that cyber attacks can, and will most likely, be used as a pretext and as a tool of war. 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Palys, T., 2008. Purposive Sampling. In: L. M. Given, ed. The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods. Los Angeles: Sage, pp. 697-698. Reuters, 2017. Nth Korea launches cyber attacks on US. [Online] Available at: http://www.skynews.com.au/news/world/asiapacific/2017/05/21/nth-korea-launches-cyber-attacks-on-us.html [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Robinson, M., Jones, K. & Janicke, H., 2015. Cyber warfare: Issues and challenges. Computers & Security, Volume Volume 49, pp. 70-94. Robinson, M., Jones, K. & Janicke, H., 2015. Cyber warfare: Issues and challenges. Computers & Security,, Volume 49(Issue 25), p. 70. Shakarian, P., Shakarian, J. & Ruef, A., 2013. Introduction to cyber-warfare: A multidisciplinary approach. Oxford: Newnes. Solis, G., 2014. Cyber Warfare. Military Law Review, Volume Volume 219, pp. 1-52. Stavrianakis, A. & Selby, J., 2012. Militarism and International Relations. In: A. Stavrianakis & J. Selby, eds. Militarism and International Relations Political Economy, Security and Theory. s.l.:Taylor and Francis. Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C., 2010. Sage handbook of mixed methods in social & behavioral research. s.l.:Sage. Tennis, J. T., 2008. Epistemology, Theory and Methodology in Knowledge Organization: Toward a Classification, Metatheory, and Research Framework. In Knowledge Organization, 35(2/3), pp. 102-112. Tesch, R., 1990. Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools.. New York: Falmer. Thorne, S., 1990. Secondary Analysis in Qualitative Research: Issues and Implications. In: J. M. Morse, ed. Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods. London: Sage. Turns, D., 2012. Cyber Warfare and the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities. Journal of Conflict and Security Law,, Volume 17(Issue 2), pp. 279-297. Van den Berg, H., 2005. Reanalyzing qualitative interviews from different angles: the risk of de-contextualization and other problems of sharing qualitative data.. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, , 6(1). Vasilachis De Gialdino, I., 2009. Ontological and Epistemological Foundations of Qualitative Research. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(2), pp. 1438-5627.. Wang, H. & Wang, S., 2004. Cyber warfare: steganography vs. steganalysis. Communications of the ACM, Volume 47(Issue 10), pp. 76-82. Wolcott, H. T., 2009. Writing up qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. [1] These are computers that have been hijacked and remotely taken over by a person other than the owner. [2] Primary data is that which is from a study where the researcher personally collects the information but secondary data is data that has already been collected (Andrews, et al., 2012). [3] From December 18 to 22, 1978, the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Communist Party of China was held in Beijing. The party decided that China should start shift its economic focus from class struggle-oriented to economic construction-oriented, from semi-rigid/rigid to comprehensive reform, and, from semi-closed/closed to opening up.Invalid source specified.

Steel plant :: essays research papers

Steel Plant   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Our steel plant will be located where the baseball field and the gymnasium is. We will buy the school’s land off the Board of Education. We plan on tearing down the gym and taking all the bricks and left over materials to the land fill in Princeton. This way more people can keep their homes, and not have to move away. The school will be turned into a hotel for some of the workers who live away from here. If the baseball field and gymnasium isn’t enough room for the plant then we will buy the houses and land behind the baseball field. If anyone else wants to move because of the smoke then we will be able to buy their property and expand our company.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Our plant will have its own storage dump underground on some other property we own, away from the city. The tanks will be specialized, so the chemicals can’t leak out into the ground. This will keep the chemicals from harming the local wildlife. At the plant there will be a special filtering system for the smoke that is produced, so it won’t effect the air and community.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We will use the local coal mines to provide us with the coal we need to produce the steel. The steel plant will make more jobs for the local people. Also the local graduating classes won’t have to go far off to get jobs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If there isn’t already another school built for the students then we will donate some of the profits we make to build a school. So the kids will have a good and new school ready for them. Also we will setup a scholarship to send students to college, also they can come back and have a good job at the plant if they want.

History of Jute Industries

Chapter 1: Introduction 1. Introduction Jute is a natural fiber with golden and silky shine and is known well as The Golden Fiber. It is the cheapest vegetable fiber procured from the skin of the plant's stem. Jute is the second most important vegetable fiber after cotton, in terms of usage, global consumption, production, and availability. It has high tensile strength, low extensibility, and ensures better breath ability of fabrics. Jute fiber is 100% bio-degradable and recyclable and thus environmentally friendly.It is one of the most versatile natural fibers that have been used in raw materials for packaging, textiles, non-textile, construction, and agricultural sectors. It helps to make best quality industrial yarn, fabric, net, and sacks. Jute, the golden fiber, is the raw material for one of  Bangladesh’s oldest industries. The first jute mill started production in Bengal in 1856. After more than 150 years; the jute industry is now challenged by competition from altern ative materials, by the recession in the international markets and by low awareness among consumers of the versatile, eco-friendly nature of jute fabric itself.Yet this industry still provides a livelihood to more than 250,000 mill workers and more than 4 million farmers’ families. It is a golden bond with the Earth; its use is a statement about ecological awareness as it is a fully bio-degradable and eco-friendly fiber. It comes from the earth, it helps the earth and once its life is done it merges back into the earth. Advantages of jute include good insulating and antistatic properties, as well as having low thermal conductivity and moderate moisture regain.It includes acoustic insulating properties and manufacture with no skin irritations. Jute has the ability to be blended with other fibers, both synthetic and natural, and accepts cellulosic dye classes such as natural, basic, vat, sulfur, reactive, and pigment dyes. While jute is being replaced by relatively cheap synthe tic materials in many uses, but  jute’s biodegradable nature is suitable for the storage of food materials, where synthetics would be unsuitable. 1. Report Background One of the unavoidable aspects of modern business studies is exposure to the practical experiences.As a part of the BBA program requirement, I was assigned by my honorable course instructor Prof. Dr. Nargis Akhter to prepare a Project Work on â€Å"The History of Jute Industries† to fulfill the requirement of 3 credit course, Course Code: BUS 498. It endowed me with the opportunities to experience the real life exposure to the Jute sectors of Bangladesh. 2. Methodology In order to prepare the project report I use both secondary and primary data. For primary data I talked to some employees of BJMC and BJMA over phone and face to face.I also crosschecked the information found over the internet by some people. For secondary data, I used the vast knowledge of internet, the websites of different research org anizations, different news websites and different article found in the internet. 3. Scope & Limitations For this report, I used graphs, chart, tables etc to show necessary information. Firstly, the history of jute industry in the Indian subcontinent has been described elaborately. The history is divided into four parts such as, Ancient Period, Pre-colonial period, post colonial period, after nationalization.The production, sales, contribution of jute industries in Bangladeshi economy, present condition, labor unrest, industrial relations situations etc. are discussed afterwards. Finally I have sum up by some recommendations and showing my findings and analysis. Chapter 2: Literature Review 2. Literature Review The paper titled â€Å"Jute Manufacturing Sector of Bangladesh; Challenges, Opportunities and Policy Options†, written by Khondokar Golam Moazzem, MD. Tariqur Rahman, Abdus Sobhan, is all about production and sales of jute mills, prospects of jute mills features and cha llenges faced by the jute mills of Bangladesh [1].News published in ‘Financial Express† is about the demand fulfilled by the jute industries, the ill management of jute industries and the present management situation of jute industries in Bangladesh [2]. An article published in Business Standard in 31 December 2009 written by the staff reporter Bhubaneswar which says that Jute industries of India seeks ban on imports of Bangladeshi jute goods for positive success of their own jute goods[3]. The article says the news about 48 hour strike held in state owned jute mills.The workers called the strike along with the trade union members for their right of increased wages and other arrears [4]. Information from the website gives a thorough idea about the earlier history of jute industries in Bangladesh [5]. The website provides jute related news about Bangladeshi jute industries. It consists of the news of 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012[6]. On 18 March 2012, workers threaten to go o n strike, a report by Arafat Ara published in Financial express [7]. Government targets to double the production within 2011-12[8].While writing on â€Å"history of jute industries† some authentic information were found in the cited website [9]. Some valuable information about the history of jute industries in the Indian subcontinent were found in the website of ‘jute industries’ [10]. †Jute Dilemma† an article by Khalid Rab published in 20th Anniversary supplement of The Daily Star newspaper on March24, 2011 Thursday that talked about the dissatisfactory performance of the jute sector [11]. Chapter 3: Findings 3. 0. History of Jute Industries 3. 1. Jute in Ancient Time (Pre-Colonial Period)Jute has been used since ancient times in Africa and Asia to provide cordage and weaving fiber from the stem and food from the leaves. In several historical documents ( Ain-e-Akbari by Abul Fazal in 1590) during the era of the great Mughal Emperor Akbar   (1542 à ¢â‚¬â€œ1605) states that the poor villagers of India used to wear clothes made of jute. Simple handlooms and hand spinning wheels were used by the weavers, who used to spin cotton yarns as well. History also states that Indians, especially Bengalis, used ropes and twines made of white jute from ancient times for household and other uses.Chinese papermakers from very ancient times had selected almost all the kinds of plants as hemp, silk, jute, cotton etc. for  papermaking. Qiu Shiyu, researcher of the Harbin Academy of  Sciences and expert of Jin history, concluded that Jews used to take part in the work of designing â€Å"jiaozi,†Ã‚  made of coarse jute paper. A small, piece of jute paper with Chinese characters written on it has been discovered in Dunhuang in Gansu Province, in northwest China. It is believed it was produced during the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). 3. 2. Colonial PeriodThe British East India Company was the British Empire Authority delegat ed in India from the 17th century to the middle of 20th century. The company was the first Jute trader. The company traded mainly in raw jute during the 19th century. During the start of the 20th century, the company started trading raw jute with Dundee’s Jute Industry. This company had monopolistic access to this trade during that time. In 1793, the East India Company exported the first  consignment of jute. This first shipment, 100 tons, was followed by additional  shipments at irregular intervals.Eventually, a consignment found its way to  Dundee, Scotland where the flax spinners were anxious to learn whether jute  could be processed mechanically. During the same period, the Scotlanders were experimenting on whether jute fiber can be mechanically processed. 1830 is the year when the flax machines were used by Dundee spinners for spinning jute yarns. Since Dundee mill was the only supplier of jute, the use of flax machine ultimately led to increase in production and export of jute products in entire continent. Margaret Donnelly I was a jute mill landowner in Dundee in the 1800s.She set up the first jute mills in India. The Entrepreneurs of the Dundee Jute Industry in Scotland were called The Jute Barons. Starting in the 1830's,  the Dundee  spinners learned how to spin jute yarn by modifying their power-driven flax  machinery. The rise of the jute industry in Dundee saw a corresponding increase in the  production and export of raw jute from the Indian sub-continent which was  the sole supplier of this primary commodity. The major jute growing areas were mainly in Bengal at the Kolkata side. Calcutta (now Kolkata) had the  raw material close by as the jute growing areas were mainly in Bengal.There  was an abundant supply of labor, ample coal for power, and the city was ideally  situated for shipping to world markets. The first jute mill was established at  Rishra, on the River Hooghly near Calcutta in 1855 when Mr. George Aucl and  brought jute spinning machinery from Dundee. Four years later, the first power  driven weaving factory was set up. Although Bengal, particularly Eastern Bengal, was the main producer of quality raw jute, the first jute mill was established at Risraw near calcutta on the bank of the hughli only in 1855, after 20 years of mechanical spinning of jute in Dundee.The delay was due to the non-availability of technical hands and power to drive machines. In 1854, coal mines were opened at Raniganj. Attracted by the easy availability of power, George Aucland, an Englishman established the first jute mill. But he could not make reasonable profits and left the business. In 1859, the Bornee Company founded the second mill with spinning and weaving facilities. Unlike the Aucland mill, it started prospering after its establishment. Figure 1 Dundee Jute Mill in Scotland. The Entrepreneurs of the DundeeJute Industry in Scotland were called The Jute Barons. Figure 2 Dundee Jute Mill in Scotl and. In 1833, Jute fibre was spun mechanically in Dundee, Scotland. Within five years it doubled its plant size. By 1866, three new mills were established. Between 1868 and 1873, these mills made large profits. Five new companies started in 1874 and eight more in 1875. Thus Bengal experienced a real boom in jute industry towards the end of the nineteenth century. With the establishment of jute mills, Bengal became a major exporter of sacking bags.Calcutta appeared to be a strong competitor of Dundee and successfully penetrated into Dundee's hessian market in many parts of the world, including America, primarily because Calcutta had the cost advantage in producing jute goods. Secondly, it was situated in close proximity to the jute growing districts of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Thirdly, it had cheap labour. Fourthly, the mills ran for 15 to 16 hours, and sometimes even for 22 hours daily. This led to a clear advantage of Calcutta manufacturers in monetary terms. Moreover, they could offer a finer quality of jute.In sixty years between 1880 and 1940, the number of mills increased by 5 times, that of looms by about 14 times, of spindles by 19 times, and of persons employed by 11 times. The growth of the industry was significant during the 20 years between 1900 and 1920. During the Great Depression of 1929-33, the jute industry was severely hit since the demand for jute goods declined drastically throughout the world. In the following three decades, the jute industry in India enjoyed even more  remarkable expansion, rising to commanding leadership by 1939 with a total of  68,377 looms, concentrated mainly on the River Hooghly near Calcutta.These  mills alone have proved able to supply the world demand. Several historical events were responsible for the growth of the jute industry. In 1838, the Dutch government specified bags made of jute instead of flax for carrying coffee from the East Indies. At that time flax was imported from Russia. But the Crimean War of 1854-56 led to the stoppage of supply of flax from Russia and forced Dundee, the famous jute manufacturing centre of UK, to look for substitutes.In Dundee the flax mills were converted into jute mills. The American Civil War (1861-65), on the other hand, gave further impetus to the jute trade, as supplies of American cotton were much restricted. Since then, the industry did not return to flax or cotton again. The main reason for this permanent shift had been its comparative cost advantage. The jute industry grew rapidly and jute mills were established in many countries, including USA, Germany, France, Belgium, Austria, Italy, Holland, Spain, Russia, Brazil and Bengal.This led to a rapid increase in the demand for jute. The Bengali peasants responded quickly to][ meet the world demand by increasing the area under jute cultivation. The outbreak of the First World War led to a rapid increase in the demand for raw jute, since it was used to manufacture sandbags to protect soldiers in trenches and to produce gunny bags for carrying food grain for the army. Inevitably, the price of jute also rose sharply. Table 1 Growth of jute industry in Bengal, 1879-1939 Year |Mills |Looms |Spindles |Employment | |1879-80 |22 |5,000 |71,000 |27,000 | |1900-01 |36 |16,100 |331,400 |114,800 | |1920-21 |77 |41,600 |869,900 |288,400 | |1938-39 |110 |69,000 |13,70,000 |299,000 |Before it was put to industrial use, jute was used mostly for domestic purposes. With the conversion of the Dundee flax mills into jute processing mills, the demand for jute increased manifold in the world. Bengali peasants were highly experienced in jute cultivation and could respond quickly to meeting this increased demand. In 1872, when industrial use of jute had begun, it was mainly grown in the districts of pabna, bogra, darjeeling, dinajpur, rangpur and Hughli (West Bengal). The ratio of land under jute cultivation to total cropped land in these districts in 1872 was 14%, 11%, 9%, 7%, 6% and 5% respect ively.Subsequently, jute cultivation spread to other districts. In 1914, leading districts in terms of the above ratio were Rangpur (28%,) Bogra (25%), Tippera (comilla, 24%), Pabna (21%), Dhaka (18%), Faridpur (16%), Hughli (West Bengal, 13%), Rajshahi (11%), Jessore (10%), Nadia (10%), and Dinajpur (7%). After the end of the First World War in 1918, the world demand for raw jute decreased. This had a negative impact on the area under jute cultivation. The situation worsened for jute cultivation during the Great Depression of 1929-33. The prices sank so low that jute growing became unprofitable.As a result, peasants greatly reduced their area under jute cultivation. By 1939, economic recovery took place. The breaking out of the Second World War caused an increase in the demand for jute and between 1939 and 1945; peasants put more areas under jute cultivation. The earliest goods woven of jute in Dundee were coarse bagging  materials. With  longer experience, however, finer fabri cs called burlap, or hessian as it is  known in India, were produced. This superior cloth met a ready sale and,  eventually, the Indian Jute Mills began to turn out these fabrics.The natural advantage these mills enjoyed soon gave Calcutta world leadership in   burlap and bagging materials and the mills in Dundee and other countries turned  to specialties, a great variety of which were developed. 3. 3. Post-Colonial Period After the fall of British Empire in India during 1947, it was found that all jute mills of the region fell in West Bengal, which became a part of India and all major jute growing districts became part of East Bengal, a province of Pakistan. Because it had no jute mills, East Bengal faced problems in marketing of raw jute.The problem was, however, quickly overcome by establishing jute mills in East Bengal. During that time, most of the Jute  Barons started to evacuate India, leaving behind the industrial setup of the Jute Industry. Most of the jute mills in India were taken over by the Marwaris businessmen. In East Pakistan after partition in 1947 lacked a Jute Industry but  had the finest jute fiber stock. As the tension started to rise between Pakistan and India, the Pakistani felt the need to setup their own Jute Industry.Several groups of Pakistani families (mainly from West Pakistan) came into the jute business by setting up several jute mills in  Narayanganj of then East Pakistan, the most significant ones are: Bawanis, Adamjees,  Ispahanis and Dauds. 3. 4. After Nationalization After the liberation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971,  most of the Pakistani owned Jute Mills were taken over by the government of Bangladesh. Pakistani mill owners (about 68% of the total loom strength) left the country, leaving the industry in disarray. Abandoned jute mills were subject to heavy looting.The new government of Bangladesh had to take up the responsibility of rebuilding the industry. By a nationalization order, about 85% of i ndustries, including all jute mills, were nationalized. Later, to control these Jute mils in Bangladesh, the government built up Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation (BJMC). Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation (BJMC) was formed to manage and look after all the 73 jute mills having 23,836 looms at that time. At one stage the number of jute mills under the jurisdiction of BJMC went up to 78. BJMC had to resurrect the industry from a ruined position.Immediately after liberation, it became very difficult to solve problem of financial hardship of the jute industry because financial institutions were not working well. Frequent power failures and power stoppages also compelled the industry to suffer heavy losses in terms of production and foreign exchange earnings. In addition to these problems, the short supply of spares, labor unrest, wastage in production etc. also shook the industry severely. For jute industry of Bangladesh, the first two years after liberation was the period of reorganizat ion.The government offered cash subsidy to the industry, which amounted to Tk 200 million annually. The annual cash subsidy was reduced to 100 million since 1976-77. Thanks to this policy and periodic devaluation of currency, Bangladesh could retain its position of a prime exporter of jute goods in the dollar areas of export. The industry earned profit in 1979-80, when the subsidy was withdrawn. By December 1979, BJMC had 77 jute mills, two carpet backing mills, and two spare parts producing units. In 1980, six twine mills were disinvested to the private sector.In June 1981, BJMC had 74 mills under its administration. These mills had about 165,000 workers and 27,000 managerial and office staff. 3. 5. Denationalization Denationalization of jute mills started in July 1982. The government ordered BJMC to complete the process by 16 December 1982, but only 10 mills could be handed over to Bangladeshi owners by that time. The valuation process and settlement of other organizational matte rs relating to handing over of the mills took a long time.Among the jute mills owned by BJMC, 46 had satisfactory financial performance in 1982-83, when their profit before contribution to national exchequer was about Tk 240 million. The same mills incurred total losses of about Tk 430 million in the previous year. Jute mills incurred losses regularly over years and external donor agencies pressed hard for denationalization. More and more mills were put into the denationalization list. In 1999, BJMC had 33 mills. The World Bank continued to work closely with the government to restructure the jute sector, especially through denationalization, merger, dissolution, closure and setting up of new units.By 1998, BJMC had an accumulated loss of more than Tk 28 billion and a debt of more than Tk 11 billion. Losses incurred by BJMC in 1997-98 were Tk 2. 38 billion. Major features of the BJMC mills in that year were: total production capacity – 451,707 tons; looms in operation – 12,350; loom hours – 59. 3 million; production per loom hour – 5. 33 kg; baled production – 312,000 tons; consumption of raw jute – 319,306 tons; local sales – 29,000 tons; export 256,000 tons; value of total sales (including export bonus) – Tk 8. billion; production cost per ton – Tk 30,349; wages paid to workers – Tk 3. 89 billion; and salary paid to employees and executives – Tk 881 million. 3. 6. Performance of private sector The performance of the private sector jute industry is also not encouraging. privatization itself has been a very problematic and slow process. Resistance from workers/employees of the mills and lengthy formalities forced the process to be slow. In 1998, out of forty jute mills in the private sector, three were closed and two laid off. The private sector jute mills run on a very low profile.Up to December 1999, the private sector jute mills have accumulated losses of more than Tk 12 billion. Th e jute spinning mills in Bangladesh export nearly 100% of their production. In 1998, there were 41 spinning mills, which had an annual production capacity of about 195,000 tons. Products of these mills are yarn and twine, which are used the world over, for carpet weaving, wall covering, jute webbing, fabrics for shopping bags, caps, handicrafts, canvas, decorative fabrics, laminated cloth, and safety fuse for explosives.These mills employ about 25,000 people and the employers have their own trade body named Bangladesh Jute Spinners Association. 3. 7. An overall trend of production and sales 3. 7. 1. Trend of production Production trend of the jute manufacturing sector can be broadly categorized into four periods: first phase (1950-1970); second phase (1972-1981); third phase (1982-1990); and fourth phase (1991-onward) (Figure 1). During these four phases, jute manufacturing sector had experienced various changes in policies, and also in the pattern of utilization of jute and jute go ods.In the pre independence period, jute mills were owned by a small number of private entrepreneurs. During this phase, average hessian production was 155,586 metric ton (MT) per year, of which 87 per cent was exported; the comparable figures for sacking were 267,614 MT and 78 per cent respectively. Production reached its peak in 1969, with an output of 5. 74 lakh MT. Due to political instability and damages caused during the year of Liberation in 1971, operations of jute mills were interrupted. Consequently, production declined in 1971 and 1972. Thereafter, production started to increase.In the second phase (1972-1981), government decided to nationalize the jute manufacturing sector, and took control of all the private sector jute mills. During the 1970s, average level of production of hessian was about 165,000 MT, of which 94 percent was exported, while comparable figures for sacking were 225,460 MT and 86 percent respectively. Growth in the production of jute goods between 1960 and 1980 can be attributed to the growth in production of hessian, sacking and carpet backing cloth (CBC) products. Figure 3 Production of different kinds of jute goods, 1960-2006 (Source: BJMC, BJMA and BJSA)Table 2 Periodic trend of jute goods production |Period |Hessian |Sacking |CBC |Yarn/Twine | |Up to 1970 |155,586 |267,614 |23,929 |0 | | |(86. 9) |(78. 2) |(96. 7) |(0. 0) | |1972-80 |165,033 |225,458 |63,578 |1,953 | | |(93. ) |(86. 3) |(95. 5) |(73. 3) | |1981-91 |219,048 |270,556 |80,415 |61,090 | | |(94. 8) |(83. 7) |(97. 0) |(69. 1) | |1992-05 |87,968 |96,839 |39,777 |163,830 | | |(99. 5) |(71. 7) |(89. 7) |(90. ) | Production of yarn/twine accounted for a small share of total production during the 1970s. During the 1980s (third phase), the then government decided to denationalize a number of jute mills in line with the initiative of economic liberalization. A mixed trend is observed in the production of jute goods during this phase, which reached its peak in 1990 with a production of 5. 96 lakh MT. Production of yarn gradually increased in the 1980s. Most importantly, production of hessian and sacking- two major traditional products gradually declined, especially since the late 1980s. Production of CBC declined as well.In the fourth phase (1990-onward), following the suggestions of the World Bank, government started to denationalize a number of other public sector jute mills which resulted in the shutdown of many jute mills as well. However, production of jute goods has not picked up even after adoption of various policy measures. Indeed, production of traditional products such as hessian, sacking and CBC has continued to decline with the exception of growth in the production of yarn and twine. Yarn/twine now accounts for the major portion of jute goods and over time, its production has also been on a steady rise.During 2006, Bangladesh’s share in the global production of jute goods was approximately 18 per cent. 3. 7. 2. Trend of Sales Both public and private sector jute mills sell their products in either the domestic market or the international market. Although overseas export comprised major share of Bangladesh’s jute goods production, domestic sale has been posting a rise, which now accounts for 38 per cent of the total production. Bangladesh is the leading exporter of jute goods in the world and her share in the global market is gradually increasing- which accounted for 60 percent of the global exports in 2006.If export of raw jute is taken into account, total export would reach more than 75 per cent. According to Bangladesh Jute Association (BJA), Bangladesh exports about 25 lakh bales of jute goods which accounted for about 56 per cent of the total raw jute grown in the country. It is worth noting here that Bangladesh and India currently meet more than 90 per cent of the global export demand for jute and jute goods; to compare, this share was 79 per cent in 1970. [pic] Figure 4 Sales in Domestic and Inte rnational market (%) 3. 8. Contribution in Economy The contribution of jute sector to economy of Bangladesh is enormous.Bangladesh holds the 2nd position as a Jute producer in the world with the average production of Jute 1. 08 m ton/Year. More than 85% of world production of Jute is cultivated in the Ganges Delta & having the major portion of it; Bangladesh became the largest producer of Raw Jute or Jute Fiber in the world. For centuries, Bangladeshi Jute had and still has demand in the international market for higher quality fibers. This fact makes Bangladesh the major exporter (80% + market share) of Jute Fiber in the world; while India has nominal dominance over export of Raw Jute Fiber.Total average export earnings from jute and jute goods are US$ 611 million (60 lakh bales)/Year. Average export value of raw jute is US$ 140 million and the numbers of factories are 187. Earnings from jute and jute product exports hit the billion dollars mark for the first time in the country's h istory in 2010. Jute sector is contributing 4. 68 percent in export earning last fiscal year and two per cent increase during 2009-10. This sector has been generating employment to a large segment of total population of the country, directly and indirectly over the years. Bangladesh produces 5. -6. 0 million (55-60 lakh) bales of raw jute every year of which some 3. 2 million (32 lakh) bales are used in the existing 148 jute mills. The country exports 2. 4 million (24 lakh). The total demand for jute goods in the international market is 0. 75 million (7. 50 lakh) tons. Bangladesh exports 0. 46 million (4. 60 lakh) tons of jute goods while India enjoys a share of 0. 285 million (2. 85 lakh) tons in the international market. Dhaka controls 62 per cent share of the total jute goods market of the world and earn Taka 20. 125 billion (2012. 5 crore) by exporting jute goods.Bangladesh is the lone exporter of raw jute. In the year 2006, the country exported 2. 4 million (24 lakh) bales of r aw jute valued at Taka 9. 77 million (977 crore). In total Bangladesh fetched Taka 29. 395 billion (2939. 5 crore) by exporting raw jute and jute goods. There are 50 private jute spinning mills producing jute yarn/twine under Bangladesh Jute Spinners Association (BJSA). The mills under jute spinning sector produce 0. 29 million (2. 90 lakh) tons of jute yarn/twine and export 0. 261 million (2. 61 lakh) m. tons of quality yarn/twine consuming 1. 9 illion (19 lakh) bales of high quality raw jute and earn foreign exchange worth Taka 12 million (1200 crore) per annum. 3. 9. Present Situations It has been recognized that Jute and Allied fibers occupy a unique position as eco-friendly, bio degradable, renewable natural fiber. We should also understand that Jute sector of Bangladesh has made and continues to make significant contribution to the national economy. Apart from its versatile use from domestic area to industry, it protects environment from different ways. All the export earnings from the Jute Industry vis-a-vis Jute sector are net foreign currency earnings.Domestic value additions are exceptionally high. So, a viable Jute Industry would be an ideal type of activity for the economic development of the country. We should always consider that Jute Industry is indigenous one. Jute, of the best quality in the world, is available in Bangladesh. It is one of the few natural resources that the country has and it has provided Bangladesh with a comparative edge in the world trade in jute goods. But, over the past decade, the jute industry has suffered more downs than ups for no fault of its own.It has been allowed to suffer gradual decline mainly due to lack of appropriate policy actions. Jute industry in Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan) was established as export oriented industry with the aim of rapid industrialization. It became the major source of foreign currency earnings. The industry was made viable and kept expanding with the Govt. financial assistance on export of jute goods through bonus voucher. After liberation of the country in 1971 and nationalization of the Industry in 1972, such financial assistance to Jute Industry was withdrawn and the Industry started incurring losses.On the other hand, the newly established BJMC had to concentrate mainly on rehabilitation of the war torn Jute Industry and expand the world export market share which was taken by the competitors during war of liberation. At the initial stage Bangladesh Jute Industry i. e. BJMC had to face serious problems to recover the lost market. By the untiring efforts to improve the management, production and export, the Industry i. e. BJMC started achieving positive results from 1973-74 with the production of 500 thousand tons and export of 445 thousand tons from 320 thousand tons and 225 thousand tons respectively of 1971-72.With help of pie chart the result can be shown in the following. [pic] Figure 5 Bangladesh Export in Major Products during 1972-73 In 1977-78 BJ MC could achieve an export of 531 thousand tons, mainly traditional products (hession, sacking & CBC) against the previous highest export of 506 thousand tons in 1969-70. In 1980-81 Jute Industry could achieve highest production of 590 thousand tons exceeding the production of 1969-70. In 1981-82, the Jute Industry again could break the export record of 1969-70, exporting around 537 thousand tons against production of 586 thousand tons.Large scale denationalization started in 1982-83. But, private sector jute mills could not perform the way it was expected for many reasons. As a result, performance of the overall Jute industry started deteriorating gradually from 570 thousand tons (production) and 514 thousand tons (export) in 1982-83 to 286 thousand tons (production) and 192 thousand tons (export) in 2003-04. It is seen in the figure below more clearly. [pic] Figure 6 Bangladesh Export in Major Products during 1993-94 During Eighties the new jute yarn/twine mills came into the pict ure and expanded gradually.It could increase export of yarn/twine from 28 thousand tons in 1983-84 to around 380 thousand tons in 2009-10. The gradual increase in the production and export of yarn/twine could help increase of overall export of Jute products to nearly 600 thousand tons with the share of only around 200 thousand tons of traditional products i. e. Hessian, sacking & CBC. It may be seen from the figures given below that production and export of BJMC and BJMA mills (mainly traditional products) recorded gradual decline over the years. Table 3 Productions and Export of BJMA and BJMC Mills Year |Production |Export | |1981-82 |587 thousand tons |537 thousand tons | |1991-92 |416 thousand tons |408 thousand tons | |2001-02 |321 thousand tons |257 thousand tons | |2009-10 |302 thousand tons |219thousand tons | Position in current financial year is also not encouraging in BJMC & BJMA mills as may be seen from the table (6months/ July-Dec'10) below. Table 4 Production and Expor t of BJMC & BJMA Mills during July-Dec’10 Types of Mills |Production |Export | |BJMC |78 thousand tons |56 thousand tons | |BJMA |60 thousand tons |37 thousand tons | |Total |138 thousand tons |93 thousand tons | However, the production and export of yarn/twine mills mainly under BJSA (Bangladesh Jute Spinners Association) recorded increase gradually from 50 thousand tons and 28 thousand tons in 1983-84 to 399 thousand tons and 380 thousand tons in 2009-10 respectively. It may be maintained during this financial year also on the basis of its production and export of 227 thousand tons and 193 thousand tons of July-Dec'10.Table given below on the comparative position in production of traditional products reveal that while Bangladesh jute industry is sinking, Indian jute industry is booming. Table 5 Comparative Position of Bangladesh & India in Production of Traditional Products |Years |Bangladesh |India | |1999-2000 |3. 10 lac tons |12. 45 lac tons | |2005-2006 |2. 43 lac tons |13. 42 lac tons | |2009-2010 |2. 54 lac tons |14. 50 lac tons |The present govt. has taken some positive steps to revitalize the Jute Industry, particularly BJMC mills. But, piece meal action will not serve the purpose because, production and export of traditional products, both in BJMC and BJMA (private) mills recorded gradual decline to a frustrating level over the years. A recently-created demand for jute sacks in Thailand has come as a boon for the jute industry in Bangladesh, raising hopes for a recovery in exports that fell 13 percent during July-February of the current fiscal year. Also, India has recently increased import of jute and jute goods after its currency started to gain against the US dollar.According to MD Shamsul Haque, director (marketing) of state-owned Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation that has 21 jute mills running, â€Å"Exports of jute goods to our traditional middle-eastern and African markets have fallen amid political unrest in Libya, Syria, Iraq and o ther countries. But our exports increased in the last three months as we got some new markets, Thailand have emerged as a new market for our jute sacks along with Vietnam. † The market in Thailand has widened after the current Thai-government started buying a huge quantity of rice in jute sacks to fulfill its pledge of providing a guaranteed price to farmers. Bangladesh has received orders for supplying two crore (20 million) pieces of jute sacks from millers in Thailand. Thailand has opened up a new opportunity for Bangladesh. It has come as a blessing as Bangladesh’s stocks were piling up due to a fall in exports.Private jute mills will also be benefited due to the decision of Thailand, which is the largest exporter of rice and forecasts to produce 30 million tons of rice in 2011-12. Thailand needs three million pieces of bags a month to package rice which means around 36 million pieces of sacks will be required a year. According to Mahmudul Haque, managing director o f Janata Jute Mills Ltd, â€Å"Demand for jute sacks is high in Thailand. † He said, as his mill alone could not meet the orders, he tied up with two other mills. Janata ships 3. 2 lakh pieces of jute sacks a month to Thailand, he said. Exporters said the increased demand and higher prices of jute goods will allow them to narrow down the losses in export receipts in the first half of the year.But it may not be possible to offset the past fall and post a positive growth in exports by the end of the fiscal year on June 30, 2012. Export receipts from the jute industry- the second biggest export earner- fell 13. 66 percent to $615 million in the July-February period of the current fiscal year, from $712 million during the same period last year, according to Export Promotion Bureau. In the following figure, workers carry bundles of jute sacks at a factory in Bogra as, Thailand and Vietnam have emerged as new markets for jute sacks. [pic] Figure 6 Workers carry bundles of jute sack s at a factory in Bogra (source: STAR magazine, March 27, 2012).Total figures are not available readily, it reveals from some of the available figures that export of BJMC in the major importing regions e. g. Australia, America, Middle East, Europe, Africa recorded sharp decline in recent years mainly because of decline in production and absence of effective marketing efforts. Present situation of the industry calls for immediate measures/actions in the following areas: ? The new challenges and opportunities presented by the changing global environment of integration in the development of natural fibers; ? Modernize the jute industry to improve efficiency in production and processing to reduce cost and enhance product quality.With the rise of inescapable competition facing our jute sector, in the international field it should be our endeavor to facilitate upgrading the skills of the Workers, Supervisors and Managerial staff who are employed in the Jute Industry. ? Involve and ensure the active co-operation and partnership of Corporation, Financial Institutions, Energy supplying Agencies and Entrepreneurs in the fulfillment of these objectives. ? Power shortage should be reduced either by power supplying agencies or by setting up generators (gas or diesel) in such mills where it is required. ? The efforts need to be put with all earnestness to bring the efficiency level to at least 80%. ? So far management at the mill level is concerned; it should be linked to productivity and efficiency. Enable the jute industry to build world class state-of-the-art manufacturing capabilities in conformity with environmental standards, and for this purpose, to encourage Foreign Direct Investment as well as research and development in the sector. ? Aggressive marketing measures need to be undertaken internationally. Markets like Africa and Middle East should be given top priority to recover the lost market. 3. 10. Major drawbacks Major problems of the jute mills are as follows: †¢ Increase in the cost of production while the sales prices of jute goods remain at the same level or even decline; †¢ Accumulation of huge losses and consequently, of huge debts; †¢ Decline in exports of jute goods; †¢ Electricity failures; †¢ Excessive wastage; †¢ Labor unrest; Poor management that affects productivity and frequent changes in government policies; †¢ High cost of jute goods compared to synthetics led jute goods users to turn to synthetics. Concluding Remarks Before the independence, the country had six jute yarn mills. However, this sector had flourished during the '80s as the industry experienced a setback in the developed countries during the same period. The entrepreneurs of the country bought these second-hand jute mills machineries with a very low investment and started setting up these jute spinning mills. Two types of opinion exist in Bangladesh over the management of existing mills under BJMC. One group is in favor of pri vatization of the xisting state owned jute mills, where another group advocates reorganization/restructuring of BJMC mills. The mills under Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation are exporting 0. 128 million (1. 28 lakh) m. tons of jute goods i. e. Hessian, Sacking and CBC. Mismanagement, corruption, inefficiency and lack of skilled manpower have gripped the BJMC mills. The mills should be run professionally to remain competitive in the open market but that are not practiced in case of BJMC, which is causing hundreds of millions of taka losses to the national exchequer. Time has come to put pragmatic/realistic thought on the jute sector to revive this promising sector. The government should devise plans to bring back the glory of the golden fibre.The demand for environmental friendly jute products are on the rise in the global market and Bangladesh should tap this opportunity by implementing some short-, mid- and long-term plans to rejuvenate the ailing jute sector of Bangladesh. At pres ent it is useless to be nostalgic about old prime era of our jute industry. Now we must formulate a pragmatic short, mid and long-term plan keeping in mind about future needs of jute goods' demand. Instead of remembering past mistakes, we must take lessons out of that and look forward with practical solutions which will bring back viability to our ailing Jute sector. This should be our only prime object. Recommendations Some recommendations are prescribed below to be considered by the government in the greater interest of the jute sector: To revive the glory of the jute industry, a high-powered committee should be constituted comprising the Finance Secretary under the direction of the Chief Adviser. †¢ The government should implement some short-, mid- and long-term proposals in a bid to revive the jute sector. †¢ The exiting jute mills of the Bangladesh Jute Mills Corporation should be converted into public limited companies keeping some shares in the hands of the governme nt like that of the Bangladesh Biman. The government may create a â€Å"Regulatory Board† to run its existing corporations professionally and efficiently. The Regulatory Body will monitor every unit of the corporation and ensure their accountability. The government should arrange a ‘special fund' to upgrade its existing jute mills to purchase necessary spares for machineries. Under this package the government will provide 50 per cent of the total credit as grants and banks will give rest 50 percent on a long-term credit to jute mills. †¢ Irregular power supply is adversely affecting production of existing jute mills by cutting their competitiveness. The government may ask donor agencies like the World Bank (WB) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to arrange a ‘special fund' to provide long term loans at 3. 00 per cent interest to the existing jute mills to help them to procure â€Å"stand-by generators†. The use of stand by generators by the jute mill s will help to save electricity at our national grid. Government is giving 7. 5 per cent cash incentives on jute goods exports. To expand the market and increase competitiveness, the rate of cash incentives should be raised to 15 per cent from present rate. †¢ The government should enact a law making mandatory or compulsory to use of jute bags for internal consumption in packaging. To meet requirement of local markets, an initiative is necessary to pack sugar, rice and pulse in 5-10 K. G. jute bags. The use of jute goods in the local market is limited. To increase the use, the government should also make law to use compulsory at least 20 per cent of total sugar and cement packaging with jute bags. The jute industries being an agro based and 100% export-oriented industry, the commercial banks are not implementing the Bangladesh Bank's order to provide export credit at lower interest rate (7%), commercial banks should provide â€Å"Export Cash Credit† to jute mills which t hey give to the leather sector. †¢ Crisis of quality jute seed is a regular phenomenon in the country every year. The total requirement of jute seeds are 4,000/5,000 tons against government supply of only 400-500 tons. To meet local demand, sub-standard Indian seeds enter the Bangladesh market through imports and smuggling. To improve the situation and ensure quality seeds, the government should set up ‘seed bank' to distribute seeds among planters at subsidized rate. †¢ Government should also arrange to provide fertilizer at subsidized rate. Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI) should also take appropriate measures to familiarize their new invention â€Å"retting process† among the farmers. †¢ Lack of skilled manpower has put the industries in grave situation. To overcome the situation at least a ‘jute college' may be arranged to set up at one of the closed BJMC jute mills. To address this situation promptly, government should introduce  "Diploma Course† on jute in the six textile institutes as early as these are under the ministry of textile and jute. The significance of Mongla Port has increased as several hundred industrial units have been set in the southern part of the country recently. The government should initiate necessary steps to expand and develop the Mongla Port. †¢ The government should also take measures to promote and expand international' trade of jute products by maintaining existing markets and by developing of new end users. References 1. http://cpd. org. bd/pub_attach/op78. pdf 2. http://www. thefinancialexpress-bd. com/more. php? news_id=14562 3. http://www. business-standard. com/india/news/jute-industry-seeks-banimportsbangladesh/381205 4. http://www. stoppressbd. com/home/news_details/66948 5. http://www. banglapedia. rg/httpdocs/HT/J_0137. HTM 6. http://www. worldjute. com/jute_bangladesh/bangladesh_jute_news. html 7. http://www. thefinancialexpress-bd. com/more. php? news_id=123 813&date=2012-03-18 8. www. theindependentbd. com/business/finance/30375-govt-targets-to-double-jute-production-in-2011-12. html 9. http://www. worldjute. com/about_jute/juthist. html 10. www. jute-industry. com/history-of-jute. html 11. http://www. thedailystar. net/suppliments/2011/anniversary/part4/pg7. htm 12. http://www. bangladeshembassyinitaly. com/bangladesh. php 13. http://www. experiencebangladesh. com/bangladesh-business-jute. php 14. http://bangladesheconomy. wordpress. com/category/jute/